Data storage is a key component of any computing system. It refers to the retention of data in a storage medium for efficient usage and retrieval. There are two main types of data storage – primary storage and secondary storage. Both are vital, but they serve different purposes.
What is Primary Data Storage?
Primary data storage, also known as main memory or primary memory, refers to memory that is directly accessible to the CPU. It is embedded in the computer architecture and has very high access speeds. However, primary storage tends to be volatile and loses data when power is switched off.
The most common examples of primary storage devices are:
- RAM (Random Access Memory)
- Processor Registers
- Processor Cache
RAM is the most widely used type of primary storage. It provides high-speed, temporary data access for ongoing computations. RAM modules consist of microchips that store data through electrical charges. Since there are no moving parts, data retrieval is extremely fast.
However, RAM is volatile and loses all data when the power goes off. It also has limited capacity. Most personal computers have 4-16 GB of RAM. Servers may have up to 512 GB of RAM.
Processor registers are small amounts of storage space directly on the CPU chip. They provide the fastest access to data that is actively used by the CPU. The registers hold data for processing the current instruction.
Cache memory is a special high-speed storage that keeps regularly used data as close to the CPU as possible. Cache sits between the CPU and RAM and serves as a buffer for frequently used data. It has faster access times than RAM.
Primary storage is designed for speed in temporary data retention. It uses faster but more expensive technologies like static RAM (SRAM). Primary storage is essential for active computations but does not serve as permanent storage.
What is Secondary Data Storage?
Secondary data storage, also known as secondary memory or auxiliary storage, refers to computer memory that holds data until it is needed in primary storage. It retains data after power is turned off and has much higher capacity than primary storage.
Common examples of secondary storage devices are:
- Hard disk drives
- Solid state drives
- USB flash drives
- CDs/DVDs
- Magnetic tapes
- Floppy disks
Hard disk drives are the predominant secondary storage used in computers. They store data on quickly rotating magnetic or optical platters. HDDs can store hundreds of gigabytes to terabytes of data.
Solid state drives (SSDs) are becoming popular as secondary storage. Unlike HDDs, SSDs have no moving parts and store data in microchips. They provide faster data access but are currently more expensive per gigabyte.
Removable media like USB drives, CD/DVDs and floppy disks serve as portable secondary storage. They allow data transfer between computers through physical movement of the media.
Magnetic tapes primarily serve as backup storage for large volumes of archived data. They can store terabytes of data sequentially and are highly reliable for disaster recovery.
Secondary storage retains data regardless of power supply. It utilizes less expensive technologies like spinning hard disks and tapes. Modern PCs have up to 2 TB of secondary storage, while data centers may have petabytes of storage.
Differences between Primary and Secondary Storage
Here is a comparison between primary and secondary data storage:
| Characteristic | Primary Storage | Secondary Storage |
|---|---|---|
| Access speed | Extremely high | Slower than primary storage |
| Data volatility | Volatile – data lost when power switched off | Non-volatile – retains data without power |
| Cost per storage unit | Higher | Lower |
| Capacity | Limited – GBs to low TBs | Massive – Petabytes in data centers |
| Usage | Temporary storage for current computations | Permanent storage of data and programs |
| Location | Embedded on computer’s motherboard | Internal or external drives plugged into computer |
As the table summarizes, primary storage offers extremely fast access times to temporarily store and process active data. Secondary storage is slower but provides non-volatile, high-capacity and economical data storage for the long term.
Primary Storage Devices
RAM
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the most common primary storage device used in PCs, servers and mobile devices. It provides high-speed temporary data storage and access for the CPU.
Key characteristics of RAM:
- Silicon microchip technology
- No moving parts
- Stores data as electrical charges in capacitors
- Extremely high read/write speeds
- Volatile – data lost when power switched off
- Higher cost per GB than secondary storage
- Modules can be installed on motherboards for capacity upgrade
There are two main types of RAM:
- DRAM (Dynamic RAM) – The most widely used RAM technology. Each DRAM cell uses a capacitor and transistor. Data is stored as electrical charge in the capacitors. Must be continually refreshed since capacitors leak charge.
- SRAM (Static RAM) – Does not require refresh. Holds data in a flip-flop circuit while powered. Faster but less dense and more expensive than DRAM. Used for CPU cache.
Registers
Registers are extremely fast primary storage locations directly on the CPU chip. They hold data and instructions being executed by the CPU. Modern CPUs contain dozens of registers.
Registers have the following attributes:
- Tiny storage units made of SRAM
- Part of the CPU’s processing circuitry
- Fastest storage – access under 1 CPU cycle
- Hold data for processing the current instruction
- Very limited storage capacity
There are three main types of registers:
- General Purpose Registers – Hold data, operands and results of computations
- Special Purpose Registers – Hold CPU status information like program counters and condition codes
- Instruction Registers – Hold the instruction being executed
Cache
Cache is a special high-speed memory that acts as a buffer between the CPU and RAM. It holds frequently used data and instructions for faster access by the CPU.
Major characteristics of cache memory:
- Consists of static RAM chips
- Faster than RAM but slower than registers
- Small storage capacity – KB to MB
- Managed by special cache controller logic
- Levels: L1, L2, L3 cache, with L1 being the fastest
Cache improves CPU performance by reducing access times to regularly used data. Modern CPUs devote large silicon areas to caches.
Secondary Storage Devices
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)
Hard disk drives are the primary secondary storage devices used in desktop and laptop PCs. HDDs provide non-volatile bulk storage of data and programs on fast rotating magnetic platters.
Key attributes of HDDs:
- Magnetic platters coated with material to hold magnetic charges
- Read/write heads to access data on platters
- Platters rotate at 5000 – 15000 RPM speed
- Moving parts make HDDs slower than SSDs
- High capacities – 100s of GBs to TBs
- Permanently retain data when powered off
- Internal or external drives connected via SATA, USB, etc
HDDs store data in concentric tracks divided into sectors on platters. Filesystems organize and access the data. Common HDD form factors are 3.5″ and 2.5″. Enterprise drives can hold 10TB+.
Solid State Drives (SSDs)
SSDs are a newer secondary storage device that store data in integrated circuits instead of magnetic platters.
Characteristics of SSDs:
- NAND flash memory chips to store data electronically
- No moving parts – more shock resistant
- Faster than HDDs – near RAM speeds
- More expensive per GB than HDDs
- Capacities 256GB to multi-TBs
- Used in PCs, servers and mobile devices
SSDs provide faster boot times and data access speeds. However, limitations include higher cost per GB and wear issues in cells.
Optical Drives
Optical drives like CD, DVD and Blu-ray are removable disk storage widely used for consumer content. Key attributes:
- CDs – 700MB capacity
- DVDs – 4.7GB single layer capacity
- Blu-rays – 25GB single layer capacity
- Laser picks up data encoded in tracks
- Used for software, videos, music, backups, etc
- Readable by any optical drive
CD and DVD sales have declined as content goes online. But optical disks are still used for data archives, video and music.
USB Flash Drives
USB flash drives or pen drives are a popular portable secondary storage device. Salient features:
- NAND flash memory chips
- Small, light and portable
- Do not require external power
- Plug into any USB port
- Capacities from GBs to 1TB
- Durable solid state storage
- Used to transfer files between systems
Flash drives are easy to use removable storage for transferring and backing up files. Larger capacities are used for transporting documents, media files, etc.
Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes are used for archival and backup storage in enterprise environments. Key qualities:
- MYLAR tape coated with magnetic material
- Sequential access – not as fast as disks
- Very high capacities – 100s TBs to PBs
- Used in tape libraries and auto loaders
- Primarily used for backups and archives
Tapes do not provide random access but are highly reliable for sequential data. They are used mainly for system backups, archives and disaster recovery.
Comparing Secondary Storage Devices
| Hard Drives (HDD) | Solid State Drives (SSD) | Optical Discs | Flash Drives | Magnetic Tapes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Speed | Faster than optical and tapes | Faster than HDDs and others | Slower than HDDs and SSDs | Faster than optical media | Slowest – sequential access |
| Durability | Vulnerable to damage due to moving parts | No moving parts, resistant to shock | Scratching can damage data | Resilient solid state storage | Highly durable |
| Capacity | 100 GB to 10 TB typical | 256 GB to 2 TB typical | 650 MB (CD) to 128 GB (Blu-ray) | 1 GB to 1 TB | 100s TB to PBs |
| Use Cases | Primary desktop/laptop storage | Enterprise storage, high performance tasks | Software, video and data distribution | Transferring files between systems | Backups and archives |
In summary, HDDs offer good mainstream storage, SSDs are faster, optical discs and flash drives are highly portable, while tapes serve archival needs.
Primary vs Secondary Storage – Which is Better?
Primary and secondary storage have different strengths and use cases. Neither can completely replace the other.
Primary storage provides ultrafast access for active processes, but loses data without power. It is placed close to the CPU on the computer’s main board.
Secondary storage offers persistent long-term storage in vastly greater capacities. But it has slower access times and sits externally from the CPU.
An ideal computing system has an optimal combination of fast primary storage and high-capacity nonvolatile secondary storage. The operating system efficiently transfers data between the two storage types.
Primary storage like RAM is essential during data processing but cannot store data permanently. Secondary storage provides permanent storage and includes online hard drives as well as offline storage like optical discs and tapes.
In the hierarchy from CPU to external storage, data storage moves from faster and volatile to slower and non-volatile. Different media are used based on access speed requirements and cost considerations at each level.
Conclusion
Primary storage consists of internal memory like RAM and cache that provide ultrafast access times to the CPU. It is used for the temporary storage needs of active processes.
Secondary storage includes slower offline media like HDDs, SSDs, optical discs and magnetic tapes that can permanently retain massive amounts of data. The entire storage hierarchy is essential for the functioning of modern computer systems.
